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A Papal bull is a written communication from the Vatican Chancery.
This is a very incomplete list of papal bulls by the year in which they were issued.
Also note In Coena Domini ("At the table of the Lord"), a recurrent papal bull issued annually between 1363 and 1770, at first on Holy Thursday, later on Easter Monday.
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The agrarian reform laws of Cuba have sought to break up large landholdings and redistribute them to those who worked them, to cooperatives, and the state. Laws relating to land reform were implemented in the Cuban Constitution of 1940 and in a series of laws passed between 1959 and 1963.
The primary and fundamental statement of laws in the Russian Federation is the Constitution of the Russian Federation.
A UBPC ('Unidad Básica de Producción Cooperativa'), or Basic Unit of Cooperative Production, is a type of agricultural cooperative that exists in Cuba.
Organopónicos are a system of urban organic gardens in Cuba. They often consist of low-level concrete walls filled with organic matter and soil, with lines of drip irrigation laid on the surface of the growing media. Organopónicos provide access to job opportunities, a fresh food supply to the community, neighborhood improvement and beautification of urban areas.
Organopónicos first arose as a community response to lack of food security after the collapse of the Soviet Union. They are publicly functioning in terms of ownership, access and management, but heavily subsidized and supported by the Cuban government.
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Agriculture in Cuba has played an important part in the economy for several hundred years. Agriculture contributes less than 10 percent to the gross domestic product (GDP), but it employs roughly one fifth of the working population. About 30 percent of the country's land is used for crop cultivationBritannica Online.
Soviet nation (; ; ) was an ideological demonym and proposed ethnonym for the population of the Soviet Union. It first appeared in official usage in the 1970's.
At the Seventh (Special) Session of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR Ninth Convocation on October 7, 1977, the fourth and last Soviet Constitution, also known as the "Brezhnev Constitution", was unanimously adopted. The official name of the Constitution was "Constitution (Fundamental Law) of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics" (). It was the first constitution which explicitly stated the supremacy of the Communist Party.
The preamble stated that "the aims of the dictatorship of the proletariat having been fulfilled, the Soviet state has become the state of the whole people." Compared with previous constitutions, the Brezhnev Constitution extended the bounds of constitutional regulation of society. The first chapter defined the leading role of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) and established principles for the management of the state and the government. Article 1 defined the USSR as a socialist state, as did all previous constitutions: :"The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics is a socialist state of the whole people, expressing the will and interests of the workers, peasants, and intelligentsia, the working people of all the nations and nationalities of the country". The difference is that, according to the new Constitution, the government no longer represented the workers and peasants alone. Later chapters established principles for economic management and cultural relations.
The 1977 Constitution was long and detailed. It included twenty-eight more articles than the 1936 Soviet Constitution. The Constitution explicitly defined the division of responsibilities between the central and republic governments. For example, the Constitution placed the regulation of boundaries and administrative divisions within the jurisdiction of the republics. However, provisions established the rules under which the republics could make such changes. Thus, the Constitution concentrated on the operation of the government system as a whole.
Just like all the Soviet Constitutions before, the 1977 Constitution preserved the right to secede from the Union for the republics; this provision would later play an important role in the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
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Since attaining its independence from Spain, Cuba has had five constitutions. The current constitution was drafted in 1976 and has since been amended.
The Russian Offences Code () is the administrative offences law for Russia. The Code of Administrative Offences of the Russian Federation was adopted on December 30, 2001. The Code serves as a comprehensive legal act to set the forms and extent of administrative liability for offences in various aspects of Russian law. This includes tax, currency, labor and antimonopoly legislation.
According to the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the Russian judiciary has judicial appeal and judicial review at the level of the Supreme Court. Constitutional Court, Supreme Court, and Supreme Court of Arbitration judges are appointed by the Federation Council of Russia on the recommendation of the president of Russia, whereas other judges for all federal courts are appointed simply by the president.
On May 252001, President Vladimir Putin proposed the Federal Law On Modifications and Additions to the Federal Law On the Status of Judges in the Russian Federation, О внесении изменений и дополнений в Закон Российской Федерации "О статусе судей в Российской Федерации" passed by the State Duma and on December 152001, finally signed by the president, whereby disciplinary and administrative responsibility of judges was introduced.
The rule of law has made rather limited inroads in the criminal justice since the Soviet time, especially in the deep provinces.Pomorski, Stanislaw (2001) Justice in Siberia: a case study of a lower criminal court in the city of Krasnoyarsk. Communist and Post-Communist Studies 34.4, 447-478. The courts generally follow the non-acquittals policy; in 2004 acquittals constituted only 0.7 percent of all judgments. Judges are dependent on administrators, bidding prosecutorial offices in turn. The work of public prosecutors varies from poor to dismal. Lawyers are mostly court appointed and low-paid. There was a rapid deterioration of the situation characterized by abuse of the criminal process, harassment and persecution of defense bar members in politically sensitive cases in recent years. The principles of adversariness and equality of the parties to criminal proceedings are not observed.Pomorski, Stanislaw (2006). Modern Russian criminal procedure: The adversarial principle and guilty plea. Criminal Law Forum 17.2, 129-148.
Many acquittals (38.1% in 2006) are overturned by a higher court.Статистическая отчетность Судебного департамента при Верховном Суде Российской Федерации за 2006 г.
In 1996, President Boris Yeltsin pronounced a moratorium on the death penalty in Russia, although capital punishment has not yet been abolished by law.
The judicial system of the Russian Empire was established as part of the system of government reforms of Peter the Great.
The 1936 Soviet constitution, adopted on December 5, 1936, and also known as the "Stalin" constitution, redesigned the government of the Soviet Union. The constitution repealed restrictions on voting and added universal direct suffrage and the right to work to rights guaranteed by the previous constitution. In addition, the Constitution recognized collective social and economic rights including the rights to work, rest and leisure, health protection, care in old age and sickness, housing, education, and cultural benefits. The constitution also provided for the direct election of all government bodies and their reorganization into a single, uniform system. The constitution was largely the brainchild of Nikolai Bukharin.
The 1936 constitution changed the name of the Central Executive Committee to the Supreme Soviet of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. Like its predecessor, the Supreme Soviet contained two chambers: the Soviet of the Union and the Soviet of Nationalities. The constitution empowered the Supreme Soviet to elect commissions, which performed most of the Supreme Soviet's work. As under the former constitution, the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet exercised the full powers of the Supreme Soviet between sessions and had the right to interpret laws. The Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet became the titular head of state. The Sovnarkom (after 1946 known as the Council of Ministers) continued to act as the executive arm of the government.
Of the four Soviet constitutions, the 1936 constitution survived longest. It was replaced in 1977. (See 1977 Soviet Constitution.)
The constitution provided economic rights not included in constitutions in the western democracies. The constitution was seen as a personal triumph for Stalin, who on this occasion was described by Pravda as "genius of the new world, the wisest man of the epoch, the great leader of communism."<ref name="pravda-praises-stalin">Pravda, November 25, 1936.</ref> Western historians and historians from former Soviet occupied countries have seen the constitution as a meaningless propaganda document. Leonard Schapiro, for example, writes that "The decision to alter the electoral system from indirect to direct election, from a limited to a universal franchise, and from open to secret voting, was a measure of the confidence of the party in its ability to ensure the return of candidates of its own choice without the restrictions formerly considered necessary," and that "...a careful scrutiny of the draft of the new constitution showed that it left the party's supreme position unimpaired, and was therefore worthless as a guarantee of individual rights."<ref name="schapiro">Leonard Schapiro, The Communist Party of the Soviet Union, 2nd ed., Random House, New York, 1971, pp. 410-411.</ref>
The Russian Civil Code is the prime source of civil law for the Russian Federation.
The Civil Code of the Russian Federation came into force in four parts. The first part, which deals with general provisions (i.e. defines sources, names legal entity, etc.) was enacted by the State Duma in 1994 and entered into force in 1995. The second part (dealing with Law of obligations) entered into force in 1996. The third part (Succession law) entered into force in 2002. The document has certain basic principles: equality of all participants guaranteed by civil law; inviolability of private property, freedom of contract, free exercise of civil rights, and juridical protection of civil rights.
The fourth part, dealing with intellectual property, was signed into law on December 18, 2006 and came into force on January 1, 2008. Part IV became the first in the world truly full codification of the legislation on intellectual property.
The Russian Criminal Code () is the prime source of Law of the Russian Federation concerning criminal offences. The present Criminal Code of the Russian Federation came into force on 1 January 1997. Moreover, on the 8 January President Yeltsin signed the Criminal Correction Code to regulate the conditions of the sentences. The new Criminal Code replaced the Soviet analogue of 1960. The main changes deal with economic crimes and crimes against property. These were the main pitfalls of the Soviet Criminal Code, as most of other chapters were already amended to correspond to new Russian realities.
The 1940 Constitution of Cuba, was implemented in 1940, during the presidency of Federico Laredo Brú. It was primarily influenced by the collectivist ideas that inspired the Cuban Revolution of 1933. Widely considered one of the most "progressive" constitutions in existence at the time, it provided for land reform, public education, minimum wage and other leftist ideas. It consisted of 286 articles in 19 sections and took six months to write.
The Constitution of 1940, (a) substantiated voting as a right, obligation and function of the people; (b) endorsed the previously established form of government, specifically republican, democratic and representative; (c) confirmed individual rights and privileges including private property rights; and (d) introduced the notion of collective rights.
Under the Constitution of 1940, the separation between the three branches of government remained, but with obvious distinctions. Specifically,(a) the role of the prime minister was introduced; (b) the executive branch converted to semi-parliamentary form, where half of its ministers could also be congressmen; and (c) Congress’ form was changed to one representative in the house to every 35,000 citizens or greater fraction of 17,500, and nine senators per province.
The Constitution of 1940 ratified the power and separation of the judiciary. Specifically, the judicial branch remained autonomous and empowered to nominate judges and magistrates. Like the Constitution of 1901, and the U.S. Constitution, Supreme Court justices were appointed by the president and confirmed by the senate. In addition, the Constitution of 1940 instituted a Court of Constitutional and Social Guarantees (the “Constitutional Court”) under the Supreme Court’s jurisdiction. The Constitutional Court was empowered to hear labor and constitutional law matters, and determine remedies for violations thereof.
Under the Constitution of 1940, (a) provincial government was terminated; the provincial councils, however, endured, but were now composed of the mayors of various municipalities incorporated into each province; (b) the governor’s power to suspend mayors ceased, while the municipalities gained the right to tax locally; (c) public expenses and budgeting at all levels became subject to a ministerial officer under the auspices of a newly created Court of Public Administration; and (d) a Court of Public Works was instituted.
The constitutional amendment clause was very strictly enforced in the Constitution of 1940. Title XIX, article 285 (a)-(b) of the Constitution of 1940, required a constitutional convention to modify the language of the Constitution. Congress, however, was authorized to make minor reforms to the document; provided, however, that the following requirements were adhered to: (a) quorum (joint session); (b) two thirds vote of the total number of legislators; and (c)“doble consideración” or consideration of the proposed amendments at two consecutive legislative sessions.
Additionally, the Constitution of 1940 could also be reformed via a referendum clause. The most notable difference between the Constitution of 1901 and the Constitution of 1940 was the addition of constitutional protection for issues relating to family, culture, property and labor. Without constitutional antecedents and expertise in the area of protection of social rights, the drafters of the Constitution of 1940 sought guidance from Spain’s “Constitución de la Segunda República Española” and Germany’s “Weimar Constitution.” The Constitution of 1940 was only in effect for 12 years.
Following a coup d'état by Fulgencio Batista in 1952, parts of this constitution were suspended. Prior to the triumph of the Cuban Revolution, Fidel Castro and the other revolutionaries, through the Manifiesto of the Sierra http://www.chibas.org/raul_chibas_manifiesto.php, claimed that their chief goal was to reinstate the Constitution of 1940. However, the revolutionaries reneged on their promise and abrogated the Constitution of 1940 once in power.
Romanus PontifexSee full text pp.13-20 (Latin) and pp.20-26 (English) in ''European Treaties Bearing on the History of the United States and Its Dependencies to 1648'', Washington, D.C., Frances Gardiner Davenport, Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1917-37 - Google Books. Reprint edition, 4 vols., (October 2004), Lawbook Exchange, ISBN 1-58477-422-3 is a papal bull written January 8 1455 by Pope Nicholas V to King Afonso V of Portugal. As a follow-up to the Dum Diversas, it confirmed to the Crown of Portugal dominion over all lands discovered or conquered during the Age of Discovery. Along with encouraging the seizure of the lands of "Saracens, pagans ... and other enemies of Christ", it repeated the earlier bull's permission for the enslavement of such peoples. The bull's primary purpose was to forbid other Christian nations from infringing the King of Portugal's rights of trade and colonisation in these regions.
The National Institute for Agrarian Reform (Instituto Nacional de Reforma Agraria or INRA) was an agency of the Cuban Government that was formed to institute the Agrarian Reform Law of 1959.
INRA also implemented the Second Agrarian Reform Law of 1963. INRA oversaw the development of the rural infrastructure.
The judicial reform of Alexander II is generally considered one of the most successful and the most consistent (along with the military reform) of all the reforms of Alexander II. During the reform a completely new court system and a completely new order of legal proceedings were established. The main results were the introduction of a unified court system instead of a cumbersome set of Estate-of-the-realm courts, and fundamental changes in criminal trials. The latter included establishment of the principle of equality of the parties involved, introduction of public hearings, jury trial and the institution of a professional advocate which had not existed before in Russia. However, there were also low points and failures, as certain obsolete institutions were not covered by the reform. Besides, the reform was hindered by extrajudicial prosecution introduced on a widespread scale during the reign of successors of Alexander II - Alexander III and Nicholas II.
The judicial reforms started on November 20, 1864 when the tsar signed the decree which enforced four Regulations (The Establishment of Judicial Settlements, The Regulations of Civil Proceedings, The Regulations of Criminal Proceedings and The Regulations of Punishments imposed by Justices of the Peace).
The Congress of Soviets was the supreme governing body of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic and the Soviet Union in two periods, from 1917 to 1936 and from 1989 to 1991. Its initial full name was the "Congress of Soviets of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies." It was also known as the "Congress of People's Deputies."
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Vox in excelso is the name of a Papal Bull issued by Pope Clement V in 1312. The directives given within the Bull were to formally dissolve the Order of the Knights Templar, effectively removing Papal support for them and revoking the mandates given to them by previous popes in the 12th and 13th centuries.Malcolm Barber, The Trial of the Templars. Cambridge University Press, 1978. ISBN 0-521-45727-0
The issue of this Bull followed a five year period of suppression and trials of the Templars during which time they were accused of a variety of blasphemous and heretical crimes. However, the confessions were extracted with the use of torture and other methods developed by the Inquisition.
Vox in excelso is just one of the Papal Bulls issued in relation to Templar history; others include Pastoralis Praeeminentiae, and Ad providam.
Ad providam was the name of a Papal Bull issued by Pope Clement V in 1312. It built on a previous bull, Vox in excelso, which had disbanded the order of the Knights Templar. Ad providam essentially handed over all Templar assets to the Hospitallers, with the exception of some resources which were left to provide pensions to some Templars who had escaped execution and converted to a monastic life.Dr. Karen Ralls, The Templars and the Grail, Quest Books, 2003. ISBN 0-8356-0807-7Malcolm Barber, The Trial of the Templars. Cambridge University Press, 1978. ISBN 0-521-45727-0
The Prosecutor General of Russia (also Attorney General of Russia, ) heads the system of official prosecution in courts known as the Office of the Prosecutor General of Russian Federation (Генеральная прокуратура Российской Федерации).
The Office of the Prosecutor General is entrusted with: # prosecution in court on behalf of the State; # representation of the interests of a citizen or of the State in court in cases determined by law; # supervision of the observance of laws by bodies that conduct detective and search activity, inquiry and pre-trial investigation; # supervision of the observance of laws in the execution of judicial decisions in criminal cases, and also in the application of other measures of coercion related to the restraint of personal liberty of citizens.
The Prosecutor General is nominated to the office by the President of Russia and appointed by the majority of Federation Council of Russia (the Upper House of the Russian Parliament). If the nomination falls the President must nominate another candidate within the 30 days (article 12 of the Federal Law about the Office of the Prosecutor General of Russian Federationhttp://www.genproc.gov.ru/ru/about/basis/index.shtml?show_item=7). The term of authority of the Prosecutor General is five years. The resignation of the Prosecutor General before the end of his term should be approved by both the majority of Federation Council of Russia and the President.
The Prosecutor General and his office are independent from the Executive, Legislative and Judicial branches of power.
Offices similar to Prosecutor General of Russia existed in the Soviet Union (Prosecutor General of the USSR) and in the Russian Empire since January 12 1722 (General Prosecutor of the Senate, Генерал-Прокурор Сената).
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This category relates to software designed for use by the legal profession.
The Soviet Union was governed by three versions of its Constitution, following the 1918 Soviet Constitution established by the Russian Federation, the immediate predecessor of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.
:For the constitution of the Imperial Russia, see Russian Constitution of 1906
The current Constitution of the Russian Federation (; ) was adopted by national referendum on December 12, 1993. Russia's constitution came into force on December 25 1993, at the moment of its official publication. It replaced the previous Soviet-era Constitution of April 12, 1978 of Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic following the Russian constitutional crisis of 1993.
Of all registered voters, 58,187,755 people (or 54.8%) participated in the referendum. Of those, 32,937,630 people (54.5%) voted for adoption of the Constitution.<ref name="Stats">''Constitution of Russia: nature, evolution, modernity'' 1.4.2 National character. </ref>
The papal bull Quod Divina Sapientia, issued by Pope Leo XII 28 August 1824,Official Latin text in Bull. Rom. Cont. VIII (Prati, 1854), 95-117. organised all public instruction in the Papal States under ecclesiastical supervision. Ancient autonomies of the old universitiesThe Universities of Bologna and La Sapienza, Rome, were of "first class"; those of Ferrara, Peruginas, Camerino, Macerata and Fermo of a second grade. were abolished, streamlining their hierarchies, a progressive move, but placing them under the immediate supervision of the Pontifical state by means of a congregation of cardinals that was to function in essence as a ministry of public education, with, among its duties, the prerogative of selecting professors to fill established university chairs. Cardinal Wiseman observed approvingly that to the Congregation "belongs the duty of approving, correcting, or rejecting, changes suggested by the different faculties; of filling up vacancies in chairs; and watching over the discipline, morals and principles of all the universities and other schools."Nicholas Patrick Cardinal Wiseman, Recollections of the Last Four Popes and of Rome in Their Times 1858:227. Cardinal Wiseman notes that professorships were thrown open in public competition,"Professors henceforth to be chosen through competition"; "Professores in posterum deligantur per concursum" (Article V.53). open to "such competitors as had sent in atisfactory testimonials of character." An exception to open competition was made in the case of those who had published a work that would sufficiently attest to its author's competency.Article .70, noted by Cardinal Wiseman. The nihil obstat for publication served as a first control against unacceptable opinions in print, sanctioned by an imprimatur .
Francesco Cardinal Bertazzoli, examiner of bishops in theology, was immediately appointed prefect; Bartazzoli had headed the commission of cardinals examining prospects for reforming the pontifical universities.Salvador Miranda, "Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church": Francesco Bertazzoli"
Scientific courses at the University of Perugia were brought under the Faculty of Philosophy, where they could be monitored in detail.Fr. Agostino Gemelli and Dom. Silvio Vismara, La riforma degli studi universitari negli stati pontifici (1816-1824) (Milan:) 1933. A sympathetic account. drawing from Vatican archives. Unsupervised instruction was forbidden; at Viterbo, the courses being given at the Ospedale Grande degli Infermi were interrupted under the provisions of Quod Divina Sapientia, when ecclesiastical officials forced the hospital to limit its activities to the treatment of patients.Università degli Studi della Tuscia: "Viterbo and the University of Tuscia".
With the Unification of Italy, a series of decrees by Vittorio Emanuele, 1860-62 freed the universities in the former States of the Church from ecclesiastical supervision.
Exultavit cor nostrum is a letter, also known as a Papal bull, from Pope Urban IV to the Mongol Ilkhanate leader Hulagu in 1263/1264.
The letter was evidently in response to a message brought to Urban by John the Hungarian, who claimed to be the Mongol envoy (it was not uncommon for individuals to present themselves as envoys, even when they were not). According to John, Hulagu desired to become a Christian, and requested that Urban send a representative who would help to baptise him.<ref name=jackson-198>Jackson, 2003, p. 198</ref>
Pope Urban responded with the Exultavit, which indicated that Urban had heard of Hulagu's sympathies towards Christianity through other sources. Urban cautiously welcomed Hulagu's envoy, and announced that William II of Agen, Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem, would be investigating further.<ref name=jackson-166>Jackson, 2005, p. 166</ref>
On 29 September 1850, by the Bull Universalis Ecclesiae, Pope Pius IX recreated the Roman Catholic hierarchy in England, which had become extinct with the death of the last Marian bishop in the reign of Elizabeth I.
Westminster became the metropolitan see and its occupant the practical Catholic equivalent of the archbishops of Canterbury. This new structure replaced the four Vicars Apostolic who had ministered to English Catholics since the seventeenth century.
The Catholic Church did not restore pre-Reformation dioceses with Catholic bishops, but rather erected new ones, which would make easier a future reunion of the churches. Likewise, the archbishop of Westminster was not declared Primate of All England, recognizing that the primacy would belong to Canterbury, if not for the fact that the Archbishop of Canterbury is not in communion with Rome. By contrast, in Scotland, where the Reformed Church did not maintain an episcopate, the old dioceses were reestablished as Catholic. In Ireland, the Catholic hierarchy was never interrupted, both Churches having competing dioceses.
Quantum praedecessores is a papal bull issued on December 1, 1145, by Pope Eugenius III, calling for a Second Crusade. It was the first papal bull issued with a crusade as its subject.
The bull was issued in response to the fall of Edessa, in December of 1144. Pilgrims from the east had brought news of the fall of Edessa to Europe throughout 1145, and embassies from the Principality of Antioch, the Kingdom of Jerusalem, and the Kingdom of Armenia soon arrived directly at the papal court at Viterbo. Hugh, Bishop of Jabala, one of the dioceses of Jerusalem, was among those who delivered the news.
As with most papal bulls, it had no specific title, and has come to be known by its opening words; in Latin the first sentence read "Quantum praedecessores nostri Romani pontifices pro liberatione Orientalis Ecclesiae laboraverunt, antiquorum relatione didicimus, et in gestis eorum scriptum reperimus" – in English, "How much our predecessors the Roman pontiffs did labour for the deliverance of the oriental church, we have learned from the accounts of the ancients and have found it written in their acts."
The bull, issued at Vetralla, briefly recounted the acts of the First Crusade, and lamented the loss of Edessa, Mesopotamia, one of the oldest Christian cities. The bull was addressed directly to Louis VII of France and his subjects, and promised the remission of sins for all those who took the cross, as well as ecclesiastical protection for their families and possessions, just as Pope Urban II had done before the First Crusade. Those who completed the crusade, or died along the way, were offered full absolution.
Louis was already preparing a crusade of his own, independent of Eugenius' bull, and it appears that Louis may have at first ignored the bull completely. It is possible that the embassies from the east had visited Louis as well. However, in consultation with the preacher Bernard of Clairvaux, Louis eventually sought Eugenius' blessing, and Louis' crusade enjoyed full papal support. The bull was reissued on March 1, 1146, and Bernard began to preach the crusade throughout France and later in Germany as well, where he persuaded Conrad III to participate.
It is interesting to note that, although this is the first papal bull calling for a crusade, the Papacy was largely absent from the rest of the expedition. The First Crusade had no such bull – support was gathered at the Council of Clermont in 1095, and spread quickly through popular preaching. Urban II was seen as the leader of the crusade, through his legates, such as Adhemar of Le Puy. By the mid-12th century, papal power had dwindled somewhat, and Rome was controlled by the Commune of Rome. Although there were papal legates accompanying the crusade, the expedition was controlled by Louis and Conrad, not a religious leader.
The crusade was mostly destroyed during its march through Anatolia. Louis and Conrad later joined with the army of Jerusalem at the unsuccessful Siege of Damascus in 1148.
The Supreme Court of the Russian Federation (Russian: ) is the court of last resort in Russian administrative law, civil law and criminal law cases. It also supervises the work of lower courts.
Ukase (, ukaz) in Imperial Russia was a proclamation of the tsar, government, or a religious leader (patriarch) that had the force of law. Adequate translations are "edict" or "decree" of Roman law.
After the Russian Revolution, a government proclamation of wide meaning was called a "decree" (Russian: декрет, dekret); more specific proclamations were called ukaz. Both terms are usually translated as 'decree'.
According to the Russian Federation's 1993 constitution, an ukaz is a Presidential decree. Such ukazes have the power of laws, but may not alter the regulations of existing laws, and may be superseded by laws passed by the Federal Assembly.
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Dum Diversas is a papal bull issued on June 18, 1452 by Pope Nicholas V, that is credited by some with "ushering in the West African slave trade."Love, David A. June 16, 2007. "The Color of Law On the Pope, Paternalism and Purifying the Savages." ZNet. It authorized Afonso V of Portugal to conquer Saracens and pagans and consign them to indefinite slavery.Davenport, Frances Gardiner, and Paullin, Charles Oscar. 1917. European Treaties Bearing on the History of the United States and Its Dependencies to 1684. Carnegie Institution of Washington. p. 12. A large excerpt of the bull, in Latin, can be found in Davenport, p. 17, Doc. 1, note 37. Pope Calixtus III reiterated the bull in 1456 with Etsi cuncti, renewed by Pope Sixtus IV in 1481 and Pope Leo X in 1514 with Precelse denotionis. The concept of the consignment of exclusive spheres of influence to certain nation states was extended to the Americas in 1493 by Pope Alexander VI with Inter caetera.<ref name="hayes">Hayes, Diana. 1998. "Reflections on Slavery." in Curran, Charles E. Change in Official Catholic Moral Teaching.</ref><ref name="sardar"/>Hart, Jonathan Locke. 2003. Comparing Empires: European colonialism from Portuguese expansion to the Spanish-American War. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 1403961883. p. 18.Bourne, Edward Gaylord. 1903. The Philippine Islands, 1493-1803. The A.H. Clark company. p. 136.
Issued one year before the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, the bull may have been intended to begin another crusade against the Ottoman Empire.<ref name="sardar"/> Nicholas V's nephew, Loukas Notaras, was Megas Doux of the Byzantine Empire.Eaglestone, C.R. 1878. The siege of Constantinople, 1453. p. 7. Some historians view these bulls together as extending the theological legacy of Pope Urban II's Crusades to justify European colonization and expansionism,<ref name="sardar">Sardar, Ziauddin, and Davies, Merryl Wyn. 2004. The No-Nonsense Guide to Islam. Verso. ISBN 1859844545. p. 94.</ref> accommodating "both the marketplace and the yearnings of the Christian soul."Hood, Robert Earl. 1994. Begrimed and Black: Christian Traditions on Blacks and Blackness. Fortress Press. ISBN 0800627679. p. 117. Dum Diversas was essentially "geographically unlimited" in its application, perhaps the most important papal act relating to Portuguese colonization.Grewe, Wilhelm Georg. 2000. The Epochs of International Law. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 3110153394. p. 230.
Dum Diversas provided:
In 1537 pope Paul III explicitly condemned enslaving non-Christians in Sublimus Dei http://www.papalencyclicals.net/Paul03/p3subli.htm. In 1686 the Holy Office limited the bull by decreeing that Africans enslaved by unjust wars should be freed.<ref name="hayes"/>
Dum Diversas, along with other bulls such as Romanus Pontifex (1454), Ineffabilis et summi (1497), Dudum pro parte (1516), and Aequum reputamus (1534) document the Portuguese ius patronatus.Desai, Guarav Gajanan, and Nair, Supriya. 2005. Postcolonialisms: An Anthology of Cultural Theory and Criticism. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 0813535522. p. 52.Mudimb̂ae, Valentin Yves, and Mudimbé, Vumbi Yoka. 1994. The Idea of Africa. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0253208726. p. 31. Pope Alexander VI, a native of Valencia, issued a series of bulls limiting Portuguese power in favor of that of Spain, most notably Dudem siquidem (1493).Hart, 2003, p. 19.
The 1924 Soviet Constitution legitimized the December 1922 union of the Russian SFSR, the Ukrainian SSR, the Belarusian SSR, and the Transcaucasian SFSR to form the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.
This constitution also altered the structure of the central government. It established the Congress of Soviets to be the supreme body of state authority, with the Central Executive Committee holding this authority in the interim. The Central Executive Committee is divided into the Soviet of the Union, which would represent the constituent republics, and the Soviet of Nationalities, which would represent the interests of nationality groups. The Presidium of the Central Executive Committee served as the collective presidency. Between sessions of the Central Executive Committee, the Presidium supervised the government administration. The Central Executive Committee also elected the Sovnarkom, which served as the executive arm of the government.
The Council of Ministers is the highest ranking executive and administrative body and constitutes the government of the Republic of Cuba. It consists of the President, the First Vice President and the five Vice Presidents of the Council of State, the Secretary of the Executive Committee, the heads of the national ministries and other members as established by law.
The Executive Committee, a smaller body, consisting of the President and Vice Presidents of the Council of State, the Secretary and those ministers chosen by the President. As of 2005, these ministers were *the Minister of Economy and Planning *the Minister of Finances and Prices *the Minister of Foreign Investment and Economic Cooperation *the Minister of Labor and Social Security *the Minister of Metallurgy and Electronics Industry *the Minister of Science, Technology and the Environment *the Minister of Tourism
The Council of Ministers is responsible for the implementation of policy agreements authorized by the National Assembly of People’s Power. These are designated to individual ministries. The council also proposes general plans for economic and social development, which are in turn authorized by the National Assembly twice yearly.
The Council of Ministers also directs Cuba's foreign policy and its relations with other governments; approves international treaties before passing them over for ratification of the Council of State; directs and oversees foreign trade and the State budget. The Council of Ministers enforces laws authorized by the National Assembly, which are passed by the Council of State.
The first Russian Constitution, which governed the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, described the regime that assumed power in the October Revolution of 1917. This constitution informally recognized the working class as the ruling class of Russia according to the principle of the dictatorship of the proletariat. The constitution also stated that the workers formed a political alliance with the peasants. This constitution gave broad guarantees of equal rights to workers and peasants. It denied, however, the right of the bourgeoisie or those who supported the White armies in the Civil War (1918–21) to participate in elections to the soviets or to hold political power.
Supreme power rested with the All-Russian Congress of Soviets, made up of deputies from local soviets across Russia. The steering committee of the Congress of Soviets—known as the Central Executive Committee—acted as the "supreme organ of power" between sessions of the congress and as the collective presidency of the state.
The congress elected the Council of People's Commissars (Sovnarkom, Sovet narodnykh kommissarov) as the administrative arm of the young government and defined its responsibilities as "general administration of the affairs of the state". (The Sovnarkom had exercised governmental authority from November 1917 until the adoption of the 1918 constitution.)
This is a list of Prosecutors General of Russia.
*Valentin Stepankov (28 February 1991 - 5 October 1993) *Aleksey Kazannik (5 October 1993 - 14 March 1994) *Aleksey Ilyushenko (26 March, 1994 - 24 October 1995) *Yury Skuratov (24 October, 1995 - 2 February 1999) *Vladimir Ustinov (17 May 2000 - 2 June 2006) *Yury Chaika (23 June, 2006 - Present)
An edict is an announcement of a law, often associated with monarchism. The Pope and various micronational leaders are currently the only persons who still issue edicts.
The international copyright relations of Russia were virtually non-existent in Tsarist Russia and during much of the history of the Soviet Union. Under the Tsars, only a few bilateral copyright treaties with other nations were concluded; these treaties moreover were weak and of short duration. The treaties from Tsarist times had all run out by end of the war.
After the October Revolution, the Soviet Union had no international copyright relations until 1967, when a first treaty with Hungary was concluded. In 1973, the USSR then joined the Universal Copyright Convention (UCC), establishing copyright relations with Western countries. More bilateral treaties followed, including two with Western countries (Austria in 1981 and Sweden in 1986), until the government announced its intention to join the Berne Convention in 1989. The USSR was dissolved before that plan could be realized. The Russian Federation acceded to the Berne Convention in 1994; the treaty entered in force in Russia on March 13, 1995.
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A CPA (Cooperativa de Producción Agropecuaria), or Agricultural Production Cooperative, is a type of agricultural cooperative that exists in Cuba today.
Consultant Plus () is an assistance system to work with the legislation of Russia. Consultant's centralized database is updated daily. It is distributed via a network of partners.
Its major competitors are Garant and Codex and Techexpert, both proprietary.
The information contained in the system is structurized into several notions, including: #legislation #jurisprudence #financial advices #legislation commentaries #document forms (templates) #legislation drafts #international legal acts #health protection legal acts #technical standards and rules
Every class mentioned above consists of several information banks to simplify the search throughout the database by manually excluding the classes and banks inappropriate for the each current search.
The database includes: *normative legal acts of Russia and its federal subjects, as well as international *commentaries and explanations for them, precedents from the common practice *articles and books from periodicals and text collections *forms of account correspondence *forms of the documents (officially standartized and approximate) *other helpful information (accountant calendar, exchange rates, bank-rate, etc.) *analytical reports
Copyright in Russia developed originally along the same lines as in Western European countries. A first copyright statute dated back to 1828, and in 1857, a general copyright term of fifty years was instituted. The copyright law of 1911 was inspired by Western laws of the continental European tradition. One noteworthy exception in Russian copyright law was the "freedom of translation"—any work could be freely translated into another language.
Under the Soviet regime, the copyright law was changed to conform more to Socialist ideology and economics. The duration of copyright was reduced, first to 25 years from the first publication of a work and then in 1928 to 15 years after the author's death, before it was increased again to 25 years p.m.a. in 1973, when the USSR joined the Universal Copyright Convention. After the demise of the Soviet Union, the Russian Federation at first took over the last Soviet legislation from 1991, which hadn't even become effective anymore in the USSR. In 1993, a new, modernized copyright law of Russia entered in force, which was in-line with the leading international copyright treaties. As part of a project to develop a new Civil Code of Russia, the copyright law was completely rewritten and integrated into the Civil Code in 2006, with the new provisions becoming effective on January 1, 2008.
On an international level, the Soviets pursued until the late 1960s an isolationist policy. While the Tsars had concluded several short-lived bilateral copyright treaties with Western nations, the Soviet Union had no external copyright relations at all until 1967, when it concluded a first bilateral treaty with Hungary. A major change occurred in 1973, when the USSR joined the Universal Copyright Convention. Subsequently, more bilateral treaties were concluded, amongst them two with Western countries (Austria and Sweden). After its foundation as an independent successor state of the USSR, the Russian Federation joined the Berne Convention in 1995. The negotiations about the adherence of Russia to the World Trade Organization (WTO) led to several amendments of the Russian copyright law in order to meet the adherence requirements.
The Law of the Soviet Union—also known as Socialist Law—was the law developed in the Soviet Union following the October Revolution of 1917. Modified versions of the Soviet legal system were adopted by many Communist states following the Second World War including Mongolia, the People's Republic of China, the countries of eastern Europe, Cuba and Vietnam.
Soviet legal system regarded law as an arm of politics and courts as agencies of the government <ref name="Pipes"/>. The system was designed to protect the state from an individual, rather than to protect an individual from the state. Extensive extra-judiciary powers were given to the Soviet secret police agencies. According to Vladimir Lenin, the purpose of socialist courts was "not to eliminate terror ... but to substantiate it and legitimize in principle" <ref name="Pipes"/>
A decree is an order made by a head of state or government and having the force of law. The particular term used for this concept may vary from country to country — the executive orders made by the president of the United States, for example, are decrees. In non-legal English usage, however, the term rule by decree refers to any authoritarian decision and in this sense is often derogatory.
The Copyright law of the Soviet Union went through several major revisions during its existence. The first Socialist copyright law was passed in 1925. Three years later, it was superseded by a second version that remained in force for more than three decades, until it was replaced in 1961.
Throughout these various revisions of the law, some characteristics remained constant. Copyright was automatic in the USSR: a work was copyrighted from its creation, and registration was not needed.<ref name="Levitsky28">Levitsky p. 28.</ref> Only creative works expressed in some objective form were subject to copyright.<ref name="Levitsky100ff">Levitsky p. 100ff.</ref><ref name="Newcity51ff">Newcity p. 53ff.</ref> The duration of copyright was much shorter than customary in the West. Copyright was, from the beginning, limited to works of Soviet citizens and to works by foreign authors that were first published in the USSR (or, if unpublished, existed in objective form on the territory of the Soviet Union).<ref name="Levitsky50ff">Levitsky p. 50ff.</ref><ref name="Newcity60ff">Newcity p. 60ff.</ref> The economic rights of authors were limited by a long list of uses that did not constitute copyright infringements,<ref name="Levitsky15">Levitsky p. 15.</ref> and mandatory official royalty rates limited the income of authors. Soviet copyright law also granted the freedom of translation (until 1973): any work could be freely translated and then published without the original author's consent.
The accession of the USSR to the Universal Copyright Convention, which became effective on May 27, 1973, was a major turning point. Copyright was extended to also cover works of foreign authors that were first published abroad after that date, and the freedom of translation had to be abolished. For the first time in history, Russia (in the form of the Soviet Union) had joined a multilateral, international copyright treaty, ending the country's self-imposed isolation (but also its independence) in copyright matters.
During Perestroika, the law and the administrative procedures were changed piece by piece, relaxing the governmental control over authors' exercises of their copyright. The official royalty rates were dropped, and the state monopoly on foreign trade on copyrights was abolished. Authors for the first time could legally negotiate publication contracts with foreign publishers themselves. A new, profoundly revised Soviet copyright law was passed in 1991, but the Soviet Union was dissolved before it could enter in force.
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Decrees () were legislative acts of the highest Soviet institutions, primarily of the Council of People's Commissars (the highest executive body) and of the Supreme Soviet or VTsIK (the highest legislative body), Great Soviet Encyclopedia, 3rd edition, entry on "Декрет", available online here issued between 1917 and 1924. Such acts issued after 1924 are referred to as Decisions () or Ukases in Soviet sources.
The Council of State () of Cuba is a 31-member body of the government of Cuba, elected by the National Assembly of People’s Power. It has the authority to exercise most legislative power between sessions of the National Assembly of People’s Power, subject to its approval, and to call the National Assembly of People’s Power into session between its scheduled twice yearly sessions. The membership consists of a President, a Secretary, a First Vice President, five Vice Presidents, and 27 additional members. The President, the Secretary, the First Vice President, and the five Vice Presidents are also members of the Council of Ministers.
A rescript is a document that is issued not on the initiative of the author, but in response (it literally means 'written back') to a specific demand made by its addressee. It does not apply to more general legislation etcetera.
== Judges in Cuba ==
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The judicial branch of Cuba is one of three branches of the Cuban government.
Shortly after the triumph of the Cuban Revolution, the Cuban government adopted as its guiding force the ideas of Marxism-Leninism and sought to build a socialist society in accordance with these principles. In order to do this, the existing political and economic structure had to be dismantled, and with it, the nation's laws and legal system. Gradually, a new legal system arose, based heavily on communist legal theory.
Pastoralis Praeeminentiae was the name of a Papal Bull issued by Pope Clement V on November 22, 1307 to all Christian monarchs. It ordered the arrest of all Knights Templar and to seize their properties on behalf of the church. Clement was forced to support the campaign against the Templars by Philip IV of France, who owed them a great deal of money and had initiated the first arrests against the Templars on 13th October 1307.Malcolm Barber, The Trial of the Templars. Cambridge University Press, 1978. ISBN 0-521-45727-0
Despite the papal request, not all the monarchs complied immediately, most notably, Edward II of England who at first refused to believe the allegations, but later carried out the order.
Following the arrests, a period of trials was sanctioned against the Templars, enforced by torture and pain-induced confessions.
Prime Minister of Cuba was a position in the government of Cuba. Fidel Castro assumed the position of Prime Minister in 1959 replacing José Miró Cardona. 1959: Castro sworn in as Cuban PM BBC online.
The office was abolished on December 2, 1976 following a restructuring of the government and the implementation of a new Constitution of Cuba. Castro became president of the Council of State (President of Cuba) and president of the Council of ministers, elected by the National Assembly. The Prime Minister of Cuba was also referred to as the Premier. The role of president of the Council of Ministers is sometimes still referred to as the "prime minister". Country profile: Cuba BBC online
The role of the Prime Minister was first assigned in 1940 in accordance with the amended Constitution of Cuba. The first Prime Minister of Cuba was Carlos Saladrigas Zayas (1900-1957), the nephew of former President Alfredo Zayas. Between 1940 and 1959 Cuba saw fifteen changes to the position, Félix Lancís Sánchez was Prime Minister twice (1944-1945 and 1950-1951) whilst Fulgencio Batista held the role concurrently alongside that of President of Cuba for one month (April 1952) following a military coup.
Socialist law is the official name of the legal system used in Communist states. It is based on the civil law system, with major modifications and additions from Marxist-Leninist ideology. While civil law systems have traditionally put great pains in defining the notion of private property, how it may be acquired, transferred, or lost, socialist law systems provide for most property to be owned by the state or by agricultural co-operatives, and having special courts and laws for state enterprises.
Prior to the end of the Cold War, Socialist Law was generally ranked among the major legal systems of the world. However, many contemporary observers no longer consider it to be such, due to similarities with the civil law system and the fact that it is no longer in widespread use following the dismantling of most communist states.
Many scholars argue that socialist law was not a separate legal classification. Although the command economy approach of the communist states meant that property could not be owned, the Soviet Union always had a civil code, courts that interpreted this civil code, and a civil law approach to legal reasoning (thus, both legal process and legal reasoning were largely analogous to the French or German civil code system). Legal systems in all socialist states preserved formal criteria of the Romano-Germanic civil law; for this reason, law theorists in post-socialist states usually consider the Socialist law as a particular case of the Romano-Germanic civil law. Cases of development of common law into Socialist law are unknown because of incompatibility of basic principles of these two systems (common law presumes influential rule-making role of courts while courts in socialist states play a dependent role).
The Supreme Court of Arbitration of the Russian Federation is the court of final instance in commercial disputes in Russia. Additionally, it supervises the work of lower courts of arbitration and gives interpretation of laws and elucidations concerning their implementations, which are compulsory for lower courts.
Constitutional Court of Russian Federation (Russian: Конституционный Суд Российской Федерации) is a high court which is empowered to rule on whether or not certain laws or presidential decrees are in fact contrary to the Constitution of Russia. Its objective is only to protect the Constitution (in Russian constitutional law this function is known as "constitutional control" or "constitutional supervision") and deal with a few kind of disputes where it has original jurisdiction, whereas the highest appellate court is the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation.
A proclamation (Lat. proclamare, to make public by announcement) is an official declaration.
Burlaw court, (verb. "court of comrades") was a special form of collective justices of peace that existed in the Soviet Union. Burlaw courts were elected for the term of two years by open voting of working collective members, and were entitled to consider minor offences and to impose fines up to 50 Soviet rubles (compared to the average monthly salary of 120 rubles) or to pass the case for consideration to courts of justice. After the breakdown of the Soviet Union burlaw courts were no longer elected and were finally abolished by adoption of Russia's new Criminal Code in 1997.
Similar institutions existed in Europe, e.g. in Napoleon's army.
A constitutional court is a high court that deals primarily with constitutional law. Its main authority is to rule on whether or not laws that are challenged are in fact unconstitutional, i.e. whether or not they conflict with constitutionally established rights and freedoms.
The list in this article is of countries that have a separate constitutional court. Many countries do not have separate constitutional courts, but instead delegate constitutional judicial authority to their supreme court. Nonetheless, such courts are sometimes also called "constitutional courts"; for example, some have called the Supreme Court of the United States "the world's oldest constitutional court" because it was the first court in the world to invalidate a law as unconstitutional (Marbury v. Madison), even though it is not a separate constitutional court. Austria established the world's first separate constitutional court in 1920 (though it was suspended, along with the constitution that created it, from 1934 to 1945); before that, only the U.S. and Australia had adopted the concept of judicial review through their supreme courts.
Countries with separate constitutional courts include: * Albania * Armenia * Austria * Azerbaijan * Belarus * Belgium * Bosnia and Herzegovina * Bulgaria * Central African Republic * Chile * Colombia * Congo * Costa Rica * Croatia |col2 = * Czech Republic * Ecuador * Egypt * France * Georgia * Germany * Indonesia * Greece * Guatemala * Hungary * Italy * Kazakhstan * South Korea * Kosovo * Kyrgyzstan |col3 = * Latvia * Lithuania * Macedonia * Madagascar * Mali * Moldova * Mongolia * MyanmarThe Fundamental Principles of Myanmar (Burma's) draft constitution include the establishment of a new constitutional tribunal. If the constitution is approved by referendum in May 2008, it would be the first common law country to have a constitutional court separate from its supreme court. * Peru * Poland * Portugal * Romania * Russia * Serbia |col4 = * Sao Tome and Principe * Slovakia * Slovenia * South Africa * Spain * Tajikistan * Thailand * Turkey * Uganda * Ukraine * Uzbekistan }}
The Procurator General of the USSR (Генеральный прокурор СССР in Russian, or Generalnyi prokuror SSSR), was the highest functionary of the Office of Public Procurator of the USSR, responsible for the whole system of offices of public procurators and supervision of their activities on the territory of the Soviet Union.
The office of procurator had its historical roots in Imperial Russia, and under Soviet law public procurators had wide ranging responsibilities including, but not limited to, those of public prosecutors found in other legal systems. Offices of Public Procurators were and are still used in other countries adhering to the doctrine of Socialist law.
The Office of Public Procurator of the USSR was created in 1936, and its head was called Public Procurator of the USSR until 1946, when it was changed to Procurator General of the USSR. According to the 1936 Soviet Constitution, the Procurator General exercised the highest degree of direct or indirect (through subordinate public procurators ) control over the accurate execution of laws by all ministries, departments, their subordinate establishments and enterprises, executive and administrative bodies of local Soviets, cooperative organizations, officials (including judges in court proceedings), and citizens on behalf of the state.
The Procurator General was appointed by the Supreme Soviet of the USSR for a 7-year term and given a class rank of the Active state counselor of justice. His deputies and Procurator General of the Military were appointed by the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR on recommendation from Procurator General. The Procurator General appointed public procurators of the Soviet republics and, on their recommendation, - public procurators of autonomous republics, krais, oblasts and autonomous oblasts. He also issued orders and instructions for all of the offices of public procurators, instructed on differentiation of their competence etc.
The Procurator General had the right to present his issues to the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet that needed to be solved in the legislative manner or demanded interpretation of the law.
The Procurator General's participation in the plenary sessions of the Supreme Court of the USSR was mandatory. He had the right to obtain on demand any case from any court for checking purposes, voice his protest over a law, verdict, decree, or definition, which had already come into force, of any court and to suspend them until the matter was resolved.
The substantive and procedural laws of Cuba were later based on the Spanish Civil laws and were influenced by the principles of Marxism-Leninism after that philosophy became the guiding force of government.
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The Chief Justice in many countries is the name for the presiding member of a Supreme Court in Commonwealth or other countries with an Anglo-Saxon justice system based on English common law, such as the Supreme Court of the United States, the Supreme Court of Canada, the Supreme Court of India, the Supreme Court of Pakistan, the Supreme Court of Ireland, the Supreme Court of New Zealand, the High Court of Australia or provincial or state supreme courts. In England and Wales and Northern Ireland, the equivalent position is the Lord Chief Justice and in Scotland the equivalent is the Lord President of the Court of Session.
There can also be a chief justice in the highest court of a constitutive state or even a territory, as it was formerly in Dakota Territory, New Mexico Territory and the Oregon Territory in the U.S. The Chief Justice can be appointed to the post in a variety of different ways, but in many nations the presiding position is commonly given to the senior-most justice in the court, while in the United States it is often the President's most important political nomination, subject to approval by the United States Senate. Although the title of this top American jurist is, by statute, Chief Justice of the United States, the office holder is frequently but erroneously referred to as the "Chief Justice of the Supreme Court" as well.
In some states the Chief Justice has another title, e.g. president of the Supreme Court. In other cases the title of Chief Justice is used, but the court has another name, e.g. the Supreme Court of Judicature in colonial (British) Ceylon, the Court of Appeals in Maryland.
PACER (acronym for Public Access to Court Electronic Records) is an electronic public access service of United States federal court documents. The system is managed by the Administrative Office of the United States Courts. It allows users to obtain case and docket information from the United States district courts, United States courts of appeals, and United States bankruptcy courts.
Each court maintains its own system, with a small subset of information from each case is transferred to the U.S. Party/Case Index, located in San Antonio, Texas at the PACER Service Center, server each night. Records are submitted to the individual courts using the Federal Judiciary's Case Management/Electronic Case Files (CM/ECF) system, and usually accepts the filing of documents in the Portable Document Format (PDF) through the courts' electronic filing system.
Most courts are available on the Internet, but some still require modem dialup to access. Each court maintains its own databases with case information. Because PACER database systems are maintained within each court, each jurisdiction will have a different URL or modem number.
Access for most courts is available by registering with the PACER Service Center, the judiciary's centralized registration, billing, and technical support center.
PACER documents are public record, though access to them requires registration and the documents are not indexed by commercial search engines. Registration is required for billing purposes but has the additional effect of limiting public access to these records.
Docketing software is computer software for use in scheduling legal matters. In ex parte proceedings, litigation, and other legal matters, timing is highly critical. The schedule used by one who practices before a court is called a docket.
One class of docketing software applications include the intellectual property software applications, software applications designed to manage aspects of the intellectual property (IP) assets of a business organization, including patents, trademarks, licences and royalties.
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The People's Supreme Court (Tribunal Supremo Popular) is the highest body of judicial power in Cuba. It is elected by, and accountable to, the National Assembly of People’s Power. The judiciary are independent from the executive branch, as all judges on every level are elected by the National Assembly; the provincial judges by provincial assemblies and the municipal judges by municipal assemblies.
The People's Supreme Court comprises a president, a vice president, and all professional and lay judges and is structured as follows: the Whole, the Council of State, criminal, civil, administrative, labor, crimes-against-the-state and military courts.
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CaseMap debuted in 1998 as a database solution for law firms practicing complex litigation. At its core, CaseMap is a database connecting two spheres of information: facts and objects. The facts spreadsheet is used to generate a time-line of undisputed facts for a case. The objects spreadsheet functions as a parent directory for multiple child-spreadsheets; each child-spreadsheet indexes a sphere of data relevant to a case (i.e. persons, places, pleadings, physical evidence, etc.).
The use of digital evidence in modern litigation has been a driving force behind the adoption of CaseMap in law firms.
CaseMap is primarily used in litigation support and e-discovery and is a central piece of law practice management software as it integrates with several third party applications, notably Adobe Acrobat.
CaseMap is owned by LexisNexis and the newest version is CaseMap 7.5.
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This is a list of Foreign Minister of Cuba from 1933 to the present. See also list of Presidents of Cuba.
At the start of the Second Chechen War in 1999 federal authorities had designed and introduced a comprehensive system to control media access to the battlefield.Smokescreen Around Chechnya Francesca Mereu and Simon Saradzhyan The Moscow Times March 18, 2005
CT is a wholly owned subsidiary of Wolters Kluwer (WLSNc.AS), a multi-national information services company based in the Netherlands with operations in 26 countries. CT is the umbrella brand for five businesses: CT Corporation, CT Lien Solutions, CT TyMetrix, CT Summation and CT Corsearch. CT Corporation is the largest registered agent service firm in the world representing hundreds of thousands of business entities worldwide. It provides software and service solutions that legal professionals use.
Papal Rescripts are responses of the pope or a Sacred Congregation, in writing, to queries or petitions of individuals. Some rescripts concern the granting of favours; others the administration of justice under canon law, e. g. the interpretation of a law, the appointment of a judge. Sometimes the favour is actually granted in the rescript (gratis facta — a rescript in forma gratiosa); sometimes another is empowered to concede the request (gratia facienda — a rescript in forma commissoria); sometimes the grant is made under certain conditions to be examined into by the executor (a rescript in forma mixta). The petition forwarded to Rome should comprise three parts: the narrative or exposition of the facts (context); the petition (object of the demand); the reasons for the request. The response likewise contains three parts: a brief exposition of the case; the decision or grant; the reason of the same.
Every rescript pre-supposes the truth of the allegations found in the supplication. Intentional falsehood or concealment of truth (obreption and subreption) renders a rescript invalid, since no one should benefit through his own deceit. According to some, however, a rescript is valid if voluntary misrepresentation affects only the secondary reason of the grant. This is certainly true where there is no fraud, but merely inadvertence or ignorance of requirements; for, where there is no malice, punishment should not be inflicted; and the petition should be granted, if a sufficient cause therefore exists. A rescript in forma commissoria is valid, if the reason alleged for the grant be true at the time of execution, though false when the rescript was issued. When a rescript is null and void, a new petition is drawn up containing the tenor of the previous concession and cause of nullity, and asking that the defect be remedied. A new rescript is then given, or the former one validated by letters perinde valere. If the formalities sanctioned by canon law or usage for the drawing up of rescripts are wanting, the document is considered spurious. Erasures, misspellings or grave grammatical errors in a rescript render its authenticity suspected. Excommunicated persons may seek rescripts only in relation to the cause of their excommunication or in cases of appeal. Consequently in rescripts absolution from penalties and censures is first given, as far as necessary for the validity of the grant.
Rescripts have the force of a particular law, i. e. only for the persons concerned; only occasionally, e. g. when they interpret or promulgate a general law, are they of universal application. Rescripts in forma gratiosa are effective from the date they bear; others only from the moment of execution. Rescripts contrary to common law contain a derogatory clause: all things to the contrary notwithstanding. Rescripts of favour ordinarily admit a broad interpretation; the exceptions are when they are injurious to others, refer to the obtaining of ecclesiastical benefices, or are contrary to common law. Rescripts of justice are to be interpreted strictly. Rescripts expire for the most part in the same manner as faculties.
A Bull of the Crusade () was a Papal bull which granted indulgences to those who took part in the crusades against Muslims, pagans or sometimes heretics (from the Catholic viewpoint). These indulgences were similar to those which, as far back as the 11th century, had been granted to the faithful of the Spanish Mark who took part in building churches and monasteries, or who gave alms to be devoted to this purpose. The first of these Crusade Bulls which concerned Spain was that of Pope Urban II, to the Catalan counts Berenguer Ramón de Barcelona and Armengol de Besalú in 1089 at the time of the reconquest of Tarragona, and that of Gelasius II to Alfonso I of Aragon, when he undertook to reconquer Saragossa in 1118. Clement IV in 1265 issued a general Bull for the whole of Spain, when the Kings of Aragon and Castile joined in the expedition against Murcia. In the course of time these pontifical concessions became more and more frequent; in the reign of the Catholic kings alone they were granted in 1478, 1479, 1481, 1482, 1485, 1494, 1503 and 1505, and were continued during the following reigns, that granted by Gregory XIII in 1573 being renewed by his successors.
The alms given by the faithful in response to this bull, which were at first used exclusively for carrying on the war against the 'infidel' Moors, were afterwards used for the construction and repair of churches and other pious works; sometimes they were also used to defray expenses of the State. The Cortes (estates assembly) of Valladolid of 1523 and that of Madrid of 1592 petitioned that this money should not be used for any other purpose than that for which it had originally been intended by the donors, but, notwithstanding the provisions made by Philip III of Spain in compliance with this request, the abuse already mentioned continued. After 1847 the funds derived from this source were devoted to the endowment of churches and the clergy, this disposition being ratified by a law in 1849 and in the Concordat of 1851.
In virtue of the concessions granted by this bull, the faithful of the Spanish dominions who had fulfilled the necessary conditions could gain the plenary indulgence, granted to those who fought for the reconquest of the Holy Land and to those who went to Rome in the year of Jubilee, provided they went to confession and received Holy Communion. They were also absolved twice of sins and censures reserved to the Holy See and the ordinary, except open heresy, and others concerning ecclesiastics; to have vows which could not be fulfilled without difficulty commuted by their confessor, unless failure to fulfil them would be to the disadvantage of another; also simple vows of perpetual chastity, of religious profession and of pilgrimage to the Holy Land. Those who visited five churches or altars, or the same altar five times, and prayed for the intentions of the Crusade, could gain the indulgences granted to those who visited the stations in Rome. The Bull also permitted the faithful of the Spanish dominions to eat meat on all the days of Lent and other days of fast and abstinence, except Ash Wednesday, the Fridays of Lent, the last four days of Holy Week and the vigils of the feasts of the Nativity, Pentecost, the Assumption and Saints Peter and Paul.
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Russian law of succession was signed by Paul I of Russia - it established strict order of succession by proclaiming that the eldest son shall inherit the throne. By doing this, Paul insisted on semi-Salic order of succession in effect excluding women from the line of succession to the Russian Throne. Passing Throne to the female line was only allowed in case of extinction of the male line. <ref name >The law of succession of the Imperial House of Russia</ref>
In eminenti apostolatus specula was a Papal Bull issued by Pope Clement XII on 28 April 1738, banning Catholics from becoming Freemasons.
He noted that membership of Masonic Lodges, "spreading far and wide and daily growing in strength" was open to men of any religion or sect, who were sworn to secrecy. The logic at the heart of the Bull is expressed as follows:
:'But it is in the nature of crime to betray itself and to show itself by its attendant clamor. Thus these aforesaid Societies or Conventicles have caused in the minds of the faithful the greatest suspicion, and all prudent and upright men have passed the same judgment on them as being depraved and perverted. For if they were not doing evil they would not have so great a hatred of the light." The Bull goes on to note that the growing rumor had caused several governments which considered it a threat to their own security to cause such associations to be "prudently eliminated". An expressed danger was the private rules that bound members, "that they do not hold by either civil or canonical sanctions."
As a result, all Catholic participation in Masonry was prohibited, and bishops were to proceed against it "as well as inquisitors for heresy...calling upon the aid of the secular arm," as it was under suspicion of heresy, partly because of its already notorious secrecy.
A kishka is a type of prison cell used in Soviet prisons. The cell was named after the gut (, kíshka), in that it was tall and narrow, like an intestine, but more like a chimney. The prisoner had room to stand, but could not sit or kneel, let alone lie down. In some Soviet prisons there was no drainage and the prisoner was forced to excrete standing up and to stand in his own urine and feces. In some cases the cells were never cleaned. Prisoners could be held in these cells for months at a time.
thumb|Fresco of ''Approving of bylaw of Society of Jesus'' depicting [[Ignatius of Loyola receiving papal bull Regimini militantis Ecclesiae from Pope Paul III. Fresco was made by Johann Christoph Handke in Church of Our Lady Of the Snow in Olomouc after 1743.]] Regimini militantis Ecclesiae (Latin for To the Government of the Church Militant) was the papal bull promulgated by Pope Paul III on September 27, 1540, which gave a first approval to the Society of Jesus, also known as the Jesuits, but limited the number of its members to sixty. The first group of Jesuits, then known simply as "reformed priests", proceeded then to elect Saint Ignatius of Loyola as their Superior General, against his opposition, and pledged him obedience, recognizing him as "holding the place of God" in relation to them. Ignatius of Loyola and his companions had made their way to Rome in October 1538, to offer their priestly services to the Pope. As they were about to be dispersed by the various missions given them by the Pope, the question arose as to whether they wished to remain spiritually "one". After prayer and discussion they decided positively, as Christ had brought them together, they felt it was His will they remain united. A charter was proposed to the Pope, which was received favourably and ultimately given solemn approval in this Regimini Militantis Ecclesiae of 1540. The final approval, with the removal of the restriction on the membership number, came in the bull Exposcit debitum (en: The duty requires ...) of July 21, 1550, issued by Pope Julius III.
The papal text includes what is known as the Formula Instituti. Later on, more developed Constitutions were written and approved by the first General Chapter (called "General Congregation") of the Society of Jesus, called in 1558 to elect the successor of Ignatius of Loyola.
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Committees for the Defense of the Revolution (), or CDR, is a network of committees across Cuba. The organizations are designed to put medical, educational or other campaigns into national effect, and to report "counter-revolutionary" activity.<ref name="Thomas">Hugh Thomas : Cuba, the pursuit of freedom p.996</ref>
On 18 November 1302, Pope Boniface VIII issued the Papal bull Unam sanctamThe bull is known by its incipit: Unam sanctam ecclesiam catholicam et ipsam apostolicam urgente fide credere cogimur et tenere, nosque hanc firmiter credimus et simpliciter confitemur, extra quam nec salus est, nec remissio peccatorum... ("We are compelled, our faith urging us, to believe and to hold— and we do firmly believe and simply confess— that there is one holy Catholic and Apostolic Church, outside of which there is neither salvation nor remission of sins..."). which historians consider one of the most extreme statements of Papal spiritual supremacy ever made. The original document is lost but a version of the text can be found in the registers of Boniface VIII in the Vatican Archives.<ref name=CathEnc>''Catholic Encyclopedia''</ref> It arose due to the Pope's conflict with Philip IV of France over attempts of each to prevent the other from receiving money from taxes.
